Burning Bright

Is It Love? â€Å"Burning Bright† is a story about an older woman marrying a man young enough to be her son. Marcie is almost sixty. When her husband Arthur died and the local help fell away, she endured incredible loneliness at the end of a five-mile dirt track until the church recommended a handyman, Carl, who could help out on the farm. This silent man from nowhere marries Marcie, but remains mysterious. In the twenty-first century, seeing an older women and a young man is common. For most people though, the question is if the couple is truly in love.Many older women and men have large sums of money which could be given to their younger spouse if they die. In Rosh Rash's â€Å"Burning Bright,† Marcie is much older than Carl, and there is a huge disconnect in their relationship because of age. The first question that has to be answered is if Marcie's marriage with Carl is a believable love story. I think that it is not really a true love story. There is a part in the story where Carl and Marcie are talking about why he has not been married, and Carl tells Marcie that she is not too old for him(Rash 7).Farther on in the story, when Marcie and Carl got together, they did not have the typical fairytale love story meeting. Carl met Marcie because of the preacher giving him some much needed work. He got laid off from his carpentry Job. Marcie dated Carl Just because she became lonely. Later, they are at dinner, and Marcie thought that their conversation would get more comfortable. When she tries to talk to him about the fire, Carl is very short with her on words and tries to make the conversation short. He did not like to be around her, so he would sit outside and attend to himself.When they go to bed, they show love to each other, but it is the same thing every day. It is basically a routine for them. One of the examples that they use for their routine would be when Marcie says, â€Å"But at night as she readied herself for bed, he'd always come in . Theyd lie down together and he'd turn to kiss her good night, always on the mouth. Three, four nights a week that kiss would linger and then quilts and sheets would be pulled back (Rash). † I found this particularly interesting at the end of the story when Marcie chooses to pray for rain. She is praying for Carl to stop burning items.She also praying for her quality of life back, something Carl could give her. Marcie mentions she thought the longer they were together, the more he would talk, but it is not so. I think that their marriage will probably not last as long as they want it too, but as long as their both trying to work things out together, as of getting Carl to talk they relationship should be great. Now days, couples Just like Marcie and Carl. Some relationships are different than Marcie and Carl's relationship. What are some thoughts about the relationships in the world today that's Just like Marcie and Carl?

Bio-Psychosocial Model of Health and Illness

BIO-PSYCHOSOCIAL MODEL OF HEALTH AND ILLNESS INTRODUCTION The medical model has been the predominant approach used by physicians in diagnosing and management of diseases and illness in most Western countries. The biomedical model of illness and healing focuses on purely biological factors, and excludes psychological, environmental, and social influences. According to this model, good health is the freedom from pain, disease, or defect. It focuses on physical processes that affect health, such as the biochemistry, physiology, and pathology of a condition.It does not account for social or psychological factors that could have a role in the illness. In this model, each illness has one underlying cause, and once that cause is removed, the patient will be healthy again, (Alloy, Jaconson,& Acocella,(1999). The bio-psychosocial model of understanding disease process arose from the context of changing conceptualisations of mind and body and the emergence of new fields of enquiry, including h ealth psychology, medical sociology, behavioural medicine and psychoneuroimmunology, Barlow,D.H. & Durand V. M. (1999). According to Engel (1977, 1980), human beings are complex systems and illness can be caused by a multitude of factors, not just a single factor such as a virus or bacteria. This is an attempts to move away from a simple linear model of health, to assess the effects of the combination of factors involved in illness, that is; biological (for example, virus & genes), psychological (for example, stress, behaviours, & beliefs) and social/environmental (for example, employment & neighbourhood).Engel (1977) argued that the best and most effective way of dealing with disease and illness is by the application of the three approaches that are related to human health. According to him the three interact in a very complex way and all play a significant role in human functioning in the context of disease and illness. Health is therefore better understood and managed when the th ree approaches are combined rather than handling it from a purely biomedical perspective.The biopsychosocial model of understanding diseases and illnesses is also similar to the World Health Organization’s definition of health ‘a state of complete physical, mental and social well-being and not merely the absence of disease or infirmity’ (WHO, 1946). BIOMEDICAL MODEL The biological model was the leading approach of understanding diseases and illnesses since the 19th century. It gained strength from researches in physiology and medicine that led in identification of infectious agents that cause diseases,(Maher & Maher,1985). It evolved from a Greek physician Galen’s germ theory concept of pathogens in 200 AD.He declared pathogens as the sole disease causing agents. The medical model therefore aimed at doing researches to identify all pathogens that caused diseases for the purpose of providing the right diagnoses for different diseases. For the proponents of this model, every illness is a symptom of a particular disease which has also been caused by a particular pathogen. The model also later focused on normalizing genetic related abnormalities and injuries. The model therefore focused on the physical processes such as the pathology, the biochemistry and physiology of disease and illnesses (Hoeksema, 2001).The biomedical model uses the traditional reductionist biomedical model of medicine that presumes that every disease process can be explained in terms of an underlying deviation from the normal function such as a pathogen, genetic or developmental abnormality or injury,(Sarno:1998). This argument presumes that illness is always due to abnormalities in the body's working systems. It is the basis of modern Western medical practice. It works on the theory that every bodily malfunction has an identifiable and diagnosable physiological cause that can also be managed or treated using the conventional medicine.The biomedical model tends to t ake a curative approach to illness (Price,1978). According to Sarason & Sarason, (2005). Biomedical approach focuses its attention on physical symptoms and therefore the normal physical state is a state of being whole and without any physical, mental disease and free from any pain, so that all the parts of the body can carry on their proper functions fully. According to Alloy, Jaconson, and Acocella (1999), the biomedical model compares abnormal behavior to any other disease and therefore has specific causes and specific set of symptoms.Therefore the medical model also implies that the abnormal behaviour is biogenic, that is, it results from a malfunction within the body especially the brain. This suggests that psychological symptoms are due to structural abnormalities in the brain’s neurotransmitter systems, or faulty genes. Biogenic theories of abnormal behavior have been in existence since ancient times. In the middle ages and the renaissance, they coexisted with supernatu ral theory which believed that abnormal behavior was caused by God or more often by the devil (Hoeksema, 2001).In the eighteenth and early nineteenth centuries, religious explanations were gradually replaced by biological explanations. The newly dominant medical approach was soon strengthened by a series of important breakthroughs which was done through biomedical researches and therefore several previously unexplained behavior patterns were found to result from brain pathologies((Hoeksema, 2001). Such discoveries strengthened greatly the biogenic theory of abnormal behavior. Medicine was therefore increasingly assumed would ultimately discover the cure for ‘madness’ as it was commonly called.On this assumption, any case of mental abnormality was referred to a medical professional, (Alloy, Jaconson, Acocella,(1999). According to the proponent of this model, the abnormal behavior should best be handled by physicians in hospitals and by means of drugs and that the whole p roblem of deviant behavior should be conceptualized in medical terms such as symptoms, syndromes, pathology, mental illness, patient, diagnosis, treatment and cure,(Price,1978). EVALUATION OF THE MEDICAL MODEL STRENGTHS:The medical model introduced objectivity in the understanding and management of diseases and illnesses by applying scientific methods of research, diagnosis and treatment. The model has also given insight into the causes of some conditions, such as Alzheimer's disease, an organic condition causing confusion in the elderly, (Alloy, Jaconson, Acocella, (1999). According to Sarason, & Sarason (2005), by use of the biological model, treatment is quick and, relative to alternatives, and sometimes cheap and easy to administer.It has proved to be effective in controlling serious mental illnesses like schizophrenia allowing patients who would otherwise have to remain in hospital rather than to live at home. Finally the sickness label has reduced the fear of those with mental disorders. This is because historically, they were thought to be possessed by evil spirits or the devil, majority of them especially women, who were burned as witches, (Maher, & Maher: 1985). CRITICISMS OF BIOMEDICAL MODEL One of the critics of biomedical model of mental illness was Thomas Szasz.In his book â€Å"The Myth of the Mental Illness’ (Szasz, 1961), he postulated the so called most of what was commonly referred to as mental illnesses were merely ‘problems in living’. According to him the whole concept of mental illness was a myth as it could not withstand the laid down biomedical diagnostic procedures. For Szasz, psychiatrists over-relied on social criteria rather than medical standardized procedures to diagnose mental disorders. He argued that mental assessment relied on the patient’s coping skills for example, with families, friends and social responsibilities to determine a disorder ((Szasz, 1961).Szasz argued that psychiatric diagnosis, was unlike physical diagnosis all about social judgment. According to Szasz, the ‘sick’ label also deprives people of the responsibility for their behavior and relegates them to a passive role that makes it hard for them to return to the normal behavior. After many years in the biomedical research, evidence shows there still remained many patterns of abnormal behavior for which no medical causality was identified, yet the biomedical researchers were confident that such causes were eventually to be found,(Price,1978).Biomedical model does not take into account the role of social factors or individual subjectivity in diagnosis and treatment of diseases and illnesses. The model overlooks the fact that the diagnosis (that will affect treatment of the patient) is a result of negotiation between the doctor and the patient, (Annandale,1998). Using reductionism method of both research and diagnosis in the biomedical model, the model attempts to reduce the explanations of health an d illness to the smallest possible factors.Nevertheless human beings and ill-health are not this simple. There may be a lot of different causes from social to psychological to genetic. The biomedical model is a single-factor and therefore looks for the cause, rather than a range of contributory factors, (Alloy, Jaconson, Acocella, 1999). Using biomedical model, there lacks the mind-body distinction. The mind and body are considered separately and they do not affect one another, which research has proved is not the case. Health is traditionally equated to the absence of disease.A lack of a fundamental pathology was thought to define one's health as good, whereas biologically driven pathogens and conditions would render an individual with poor health and the label â€Å"diseased†. However, such a narrow scope on health limited our understanding of wellbeing, thwarted our treatments efforts, and perhaps more importantly, suppressed preventive measures, (Sarno, 1998). PSYCHOLOGIC AL MODELS OF UNDERSTANDING TO DISEASE PROCESSES In contrast to the medical model, thoughts, feelings and behaviours affect our health and well-being.Recognition of the importance of these influences on health and disease is consistent with evolving conceptions of the interactions between the mind and the body and represents a significant change in medicine and the life sciences,( Baum & Posluszny, 1999). There are psychological theories that argues that the mind prays a pivotal role in matters related to diseases and illnesses. According such theories, disturbed or abnormal behavior for example may be explained physiologically and also psychologically.Conditions like Schiszophrenia and depression have both physiological and psychological explanations of causality and management. Some of the psychological perspectives of that deal with health and well-being of human beings are; The Psychodynamic Perspective: Psychodynamic approach to abnormal behaviour assumes that abnormal behavior arises or originates from unconscious unresolved psychological conflicts. According to Sigmund Freud(1925) behaviour is motivated by internal or psychological forces. Abnormality according to him is caused by an imbalance in the internal forces that motivate behaviour.He believed that mental illness arises from unresolved conscious conflicts, which usually occur in early childhood According to Freud, the unconscious forms about 90% of the human mind, and the remaining 10% is conscious. People are not able to access the contents of their own unconscious mind. Traumatic memories, inappropriate desires, and unresolved conflicts are buried in the unconscious mind by ego defense mechanisms such as repression. The contents of the unconscious mind for example, a childhood trauma, may still influence behaviour and this can lead to abnormality (Santrock,2007).According to psychodynamic proponents, another source of abnormality arises from extremes either from id or from the superego; Weak eg o: According to psychodynamics, the well adjusted people have a strong ego, that is, they able to cope with the demands of both the id and the superego by allowing each to express itself at appropriate times. If, however, the ego is weakened, then either the id or the superego, whichever is stronger, may dominate the personality leading to deviant behavior and neurotism.Unchecked id impulses: Freud argued that, if id impulses are unchecked they may be expressed in self-destructive and immoral behaviour. This may lead to disorders such as conduct disorders in childhood and psychopathic behaviour in adulthood. Too powerful superego: According to Freund, a superego that is too powerful, and therefore too harsh and inflexible in its moral values, will restrict the id to such an extent that the person will be deprived of even socially acceptable pleasures. According to him this would create neurosis, which could be expressed in the symptoms of anxiety disorders, such as phobias and obses sions.The Behaviourist Perspective This approach believes that behavior is learned based on reinforcement. Therefore it is sustained its consequences. Therefore the maladaptive behavior is learned through reward while it can also be relearned, (Slavin, 2003). The proponents of this model argues that deviant behavior can be managed through; Shaping: This involves guiding behavior toward goals by reinforcing the many steps that lead to success. Extinction: This approach involves removing reinforcers from previously learned behavior until the behavior disappears.Extinction burst: This process involves the increase in levels of behavior in the early stages of extinction. Positive reinforcement: This a technique of sustaining a desired behavior for example, applying praise after doing something desirable. Negative reinforcement: this is a technique of escaping from an unpleasant or a way of preventing unpleasant behavior from occurring. Punishment – consequences that weaken behavi or; punishment like reinforcement is in the eye of the receiver and the impact on behavior, (Slavin, 2003). Cognitive Theoretical Model:The cognitive perspective maintains that peoples’ way of interpreting situations determine their emotional and behavioral symptoms,(Hoeksema, 2001). Abnormal behavior is a product of negative or erroneous thinking and perception about oneself and of the environment. The proponents of this theory argue that the human being is not a passive organism, but is capable of processing information and comprehend the relationship between cause and effect. According to Beck (1921), maladaptive behavior may result from faulty or distorted interpretation of the reality.Therefore false or negative view of the world can easily lead to illness or abnormal behavior. For example, a negative view of oneself can lead to negative interpretation and negative expectations of the future. These negative belief systems and erroneous view of the world can lead to depre ssion, (Halligan,& Aylward,(Eds. ) 2006). Accord to Albert Ellis (1959), the goal of cognitive therapy is to help people change their irrational beliefs into rational beliefs. This is done by the therapist creating insights in a person’s mind through the process of disputing the client's irrational beliefs, (Santrock,2007).Humanist Model of Abnormal Behaviour According to the humanistic approach and existentialists theories, symptoms of abnormal behavior arise when people are not allowed to pursue their full potential and instead they are made or try to conform to others wishes,(Hoeksema,(2001). According to Carl Rogers, â€Å"The organism has one basic tendency and striving: to actualize, maintain, and enhance the experiencing organism† (Rogers, 1951). According to him, abnormal behavior can be managed through working to remove incongruences, defense mechanisms, and developing positive personal self-regard.SOCIOCULTURAL APPROACHES Interpersonal theorists focus on the role of interpersonal relationships in shaping normal and abnormal behavior. Family system theorists suggests that abnormality among individual family members is the result of dysfunctional patterns of interaction within families that encourage and maintain psychopathology,(Hoeksema,2001). Social structural theorists on the other hand focus on the influence of structural factors in the environment and cultures on individuals’ behavior, (Barlow & Durand,1999). The Role of Psychological State in health mattersCurrent psychological researches especially in the field of Psychoneuroimmunology (PNI), indicate that psychological state can influence the body immunity through the nervous system. The studies suggest that, not only can psychological state influence health, but beliefs may also influence health directly. In particular, research has focused on the capacity of psychological factors (such as mood, thought suppression and stress) to modify immune functioning,(Ogden, 2004). A ccording to various studies, positive mood is associated with better immune functioning, whereas negative mood is associated with poorer immune functioning (Stone et al. 1987). Humour appears to be particularly beneficial (Dillon, Minchoff & Baker, 1985). Certain coping styles (such as suppression and denial) may relate to illness onset and progression (e. g. Kune et al. , 1991), while thought expression through writing or disclosure groups may improve immune functioning,(Pennebaker et al. , 1988; Petrie, Booth & Pennebaker, 1998). Kiecolt-Glaser and Glaser (1986) argued that stress causes a decrease in the hormones produced to fight carcinogens (factors that cause cancer) and repair DNA.In particular, cortisol decreases the number of active T cells, which can increase the rate of tumour development. This suggests that experiencing stress while being ill could exacerbate the illness through physiological changes. So if the illness itself is appraised as being stressful, this itself may be damaging to the chances of recovery. According to Ogden (2000), chronic illnesses, such as asthma, AIDS, cancer, coronary heart disease and multiple sclerosis, are another important areas of health that research indicates that psychological factors play important role.Coronary heart disease (CHD) for example, is caused by hardening of the arteries (atherosclerosis), which are narrowed by fatty deposits. This can result in angina (pain) or a heart attack (myocardial infarction). CHD is responsible for 33 per cent of deaths in men under 65 and 28 per cent of all deaths. It is the leading cause of death in the UK, killing 4300 men and 2721 women per million in 1992. It has been estimated that CHD cost the National Health Service in the UK about ? 390 million in 1985/86, (Ogden, 2000).Many risk factors for chronic heart disease which are modifiable have been identified, for example, smoking, alcohol, obesity, sedentary lifestyle, perceived work stress and high blood pressure. Acc ording to Friedman and Rosenman (1959,’78) type A behaviour is characterized by excessive competitiveness, vigour, energy, alertness, confidence, loud speaking, rapid speaking, tense clipped speech, impatience, hostility, interrupting, frequent use of the word ‘never’ and frequent use of the word ‘absolutely’, In the 1980s Karasek developed a job demand/job control model of stress.He proposed the ‘job demand control hypothesis’, whose aim was to reduce job strain. According to Karasek and Theorell, (1990), there are two aspects of job strain; job demands and job autonomy (which reflects the person’s control over the speed or the nature of decisions made within the job). Karasek’s hypothesis suggests that high job demands and low job autonomy predict CHD. He later in his included the concept of social support, which he defined in terms of emotional support (trust and social cohesion between co-workers) and instrumental socia l support (the provision of extra resources and assistance).All the above conditions involve in their therapy psychological related techniques that includes; exercises, behavior modifications and cognitive therapies. A Multi Perspective Approach to Disease and Illnesses The model recognizes four systems centered on the person; organs, the whole person, behaviour, and social role function. It also considers the four contextual factors that influence these systems, that is; personal factors, physical environment, social environment, and time.This model also draws attention to two important components of any holistic model of health, choice (free-will) and quality of life, (McKeown,1979), This approach advocates the importance of looking at health and human behavior from scientific, psychological and social cultural approach. According to this model abnormal behavior is therefore effectively dealt with from these three points of view. Psychologically the unobservable events of the mind , such as attitudes, memories, and desires are unquestionably involved in most of psychopathology(Alloy, Jacobson &acocella,1999).According to Ndetei(2006), Culture and religion also play an important role in the development and management of psychopathology. Over the last century, health behaviours have played an increasingly important role in health and illness. This relationship has been highlighted by McKeown’s book, The Role of Medicine (1979), which discusses the decline of infectious diseases in the nineteenth century, which forms the focus for medical sociology. It also highlights the increasing role of behavior in illness in the twentieth century.The commonly held view is that the decline in illnesses such as TB, measles, smallpox and whooping cough was related to the development of medical interventions such as chemotherapy and vaccinations. But McKeown showed that the decline in infectious diseases had already begun, before the development of medical interventions. He claimed that, looking back over the past three centuries, this decline is best understood in terms of social and environmental factors. McKeown also examined health and illness throughout the twentieth century.He argued that contemporary illness is caused by an individual’s own behaviours, such as whether they smoke, what they eat and how much exercise they take, and he suggested that good health was dependent on tackling these habits. It has been suggested that 50 per cent of mortality from the ten leading causes of death is due to behaviour. If this is correct, then behaviour and lifestyle have a potentially major effect on longevity. For example, Doll and Peto (1981) estimated that tobacco consumption accounts for 30 per cent of all cancer deaths, alcohol 3 per cent, diet 35 per cent, and reproductive and sexual behaviour 7 per cent.Approximately 75 per cent of all deaths due to cancer are related to behaviour. More specifically, lung cancer (the most common form) acco unts for 36 per cent of all cancer deaths in men and 15 per cent in women in the UK. It has been calculated that 90 per cent of all lung cancer mortality is attributable to cigarette smoking, which is also linked to other illnesses such as cancers of the bladder, pancreas, mouth, larynx and oesophagus, and to coronary heart disease.And bowel cancer, which accounts for 11 per cent of all cancer deaths in men and 14 per cent in women, appears to be linked to diets high in total fat, high in meat and low in fibre, Doll and Peto (1981). In summary The proponents of the biopsychosocial model argue that the biomedical model alone does not take into account all of the factors that have an impact on a patient's health. Biological issues, as well as psychological factors such as a patient's mood, occupation, intelligence, memory, level of education and perceptions are all considered when making a diagnosis.The biomedical approach may not, for example, take into account the role sociological factors like family, social class, or a patient's environment may have on causing a health condition, and thus offer little insight into how illness may be prevented. A patient who complains of symptoms that have no obvious objective cause might also be dismissed as not being ill, despite the very real effect those symptoms may have on the patient's daily life.The biopsychosocial model of understanding disease process accomplished a milestone that brought about a dramatic shift in focus from disease to health, recognizing that psychosocial factors (for example; beliefs, relationships, and stress) greatly impact recovery, the progression of and recuperation from illness and disease. While the traditional biomedical models of clinical medicine focused on pathophysiology and other biological approaches to disease, the biopsychosocial approach emphasize the importance of understanding human health and illness in their fullest contexts. CONCLUTION:This model recognizes human beings as co mplex systems and illness can be caused by a multitude of factors, not just a single factor such as a virus or bacteria. Biopsychosocial model therefore attempts to move away from a simple linear model of health and looks at the combination of factors involved in illness; biological (for example, a virus), psychological (for example, behaviours, beliefs) and social (for example, employment). Since in biopsychosocial model , illness is regarded as the result of a combination of factors, the individual is no longer simply seen as a passive victim of some external force, such as a virus.Acknowledging the role of behaviours such as smoking, diet, exercises and alcohol, for example, means that the individual may be held responsible for their health and illness. From this perspective, health and illness exist on a continuum. Rather than being either healthy or ill, individuals progress along a continuum from healthiness to illness and back again. The biopsychosocial model of understanding disease process maintains that the mind and body interact, and therefore it considers psychological factors as not only possible consequences of illness but as contributing to all the stages of health, from being healthy to being illness.Current Application of Biopsychosocial Model: The biopsychosocial model of illness seems to be a significant advance upon the biomedical model of illness. It has been used as the basis of a system for classification of various aspects of illnesses as found in various diagnostic tools for example, Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders(DSM), and the International Statistical Classification of Diseases. The apply the biopsychosocial model of diagnosing diseases and illnesses and have therefore become the international criteria for mental illness.REFERENCES 1. Alloy, L. B. , Jaconson,N. S. , Acocella,J. (1999). Abnormal Psychology: Current Perspectives (8th. ed). Boston: Mcgraw-Hill . 2. Barlow,D. H. & Durand V. M. ,(1999). Abnormal Psy chology: An Integrative Aproach. Boston:Core Publishing House. 3. Baum, A. & Posluszny, M. D. ,(1999). Health psychology: Mapping biobehavioral contributions to health and illness. Annual Review of Psychology, 50, 137–163. 4. Bruns D, Disorbio J. M. , (2006). Chronic Pain and Biopsychosocial Disorders. Practical Pain Management, March, volume 6, issue 2. 5. DiMatteo, M.R. , Haskard, K. B. , & Williams, S. L. , (2007). Health beliefs, disease severity, and patient adherence: A meta-analysis. Medical Care, 45, 521-528. 6. Doll R, Peto R. Mortality in relation to smoking: 20 years' observations on male British doctors. Br Med J. 1976 Dec 25;2(6051):1525–36. 7. Engel, G. L. (1977). The need for a new medical model: a challenge for biomedicine. Science;196:129-136. 8. Frankel, R. M. , Quill, T. E. , McDaniel, S. H. (Eds. )(2003): The Biopsychosocial Approach: Past, Present, Future. Rochester :University of Rochester Press. . Gatchel, R. J. & Oordt, M. S. , (2003). Clinical health psychology and primary care: Practical advice and clinical guidance for successful collaboration. American Psychological Association: Washington, D. C. 10. Halligan, P. W. , & Aylward, M. (Eds. ), (2006). The Power of Belief: Psychosocial influence on illness, disability and medicine. Oxford University Press, UK. 11. Hoeksema, S. N. , (2001). Abnormal Psychology (2nd ed). Boston: McGraw Hill. 12. Maher, B. A. , & Maher, W. B (1985). Psychopathology: From the Eighteenth Century to Modern Times.In G. A. Kimbe & K. Schlesinger(Eds), Topics in the history of psychology(295-329). 13. McKeown’s book, The Role of Medicine (1979), The Lancet, Volume 371, Issue 9613, Pages 644 – 645, 23 February 2008. 14. McLeod, S. A. , (2008). Medical Model – Treating Mental Disorders. http://www. simplypsychology. org/medical-model. html 15. Ndetei D. MSzabo,C. P. ,Okasha,T. ,J. M. ,(2006). The AfricanTextbook of Clinical Psychiatry and mental Health. Nairobi: The African medic al and Research Foundation (AMREF). 16. Ogden, J. (2012).Health Psychology: A Textbook (5th ed. ). Maidenhead, UK: Open University Press 17. Price, R. H. , (1978). Abnormal Behaviour: Perspectives In Conflict(2nd. ed. ). New York: Holt, Renehart and Winstorn. 18. Slavin R. E. , (2011). Educational Psychology: Theory and Practice (10th Edition). ISBN-10: 0137034350. 19. Santrock, J. W. ,(2007). A Topical Approach to Human Life-span Development (3rd ed. ). St. Louis, MO: McGraw-Hill. 20. Sarason, I. G. & Sarason B. R. ,(2005). Abnormal Psychology: The Problem of maladaptive Behaviour(11th. d. ). New Delhi: Prentice-Hall of India. 21. Sarno, J. E. (1998). The Mind-body Prescription: Healing the Body, Healing the Pain. Warner Books. ISBN 0-446-52076-4. 22. Stone, A. A. ,Bovbjerg,D. H. ,Neale, J. M. , et (1992). † Development of Common cold Symptoms following experimental rhino virus†Behavioral Medicine. Fall,115-120. 23. Szasz, T. S. , (1961), The Myth of Mental Illness, New York: Holber-Harper, 24. World Health Organization as adopted by the International Health Conference, New York, 19-22 June, 1946.

No Child Left behind Policy Review Essay

The No Child Left behind Act, referred to as NCLB was signed into law on January 8th, 2002 during the Bush Administration and was heralded with bipartisan support. It boosted educational spending by the Federal government by approximately 40%. (Carleton University 2008) NCLB’s goal was to attempt to remedy the problem of lack of accountability and school achievement throughout the nation. It was considered a revision of the 1965 Elementary and Secondary Educational Act. The aim of the Law is to close the achievement gap and skills between advantaged and disadvantaged students. The government identified a lack of set standards and testing requirements across the country. Some schools were consistently failing to meet the state standards and the students were subjected to that school’s poor performance due to the location of their residence and school boundaries. Parents were left with no choice or alternative nor recourse to transfer their child from a dangerous or poor performing school to a safer or academically successful school. Lack of local and state control over educational funding and programs implemented and used caused inconsistency among school districts throughout the states. Due to budgetary constraints certain schools, usually in disadvantaged areas, fell below the minimum standards with little hope for change. As well, lack of academic accountability on the local and state level was identified as an overwhelming problem that needed to be addressed. The No Child Left behind Law proposes to close the achievement gap between the advantaged and disadvantaged students. Also it aims to target reading skills and gain proficiency by the end of the 3rd grade and for graduates of high school also to reach a certain level of proficiency in all subjects. Another goal of the law is to hire and retain qualified and skilled teachers for the main academic subjects in schools. The population identified and targeted for the No Child Left behind Act is the economically disadvantaged children and parents in certain poor performing and dangerous schools and school districts across the country. This population was impacted favorably in various ways. Through mandatory state wide testing the schools performances were monitored and problematic schools were identified. Additional funding at the local, state and federal levels were allocated for this lackluster schools to supplement more successful learning programs, hire quality and experienced teachers and if the school’s performance doesn’t improve, the parents have the choice to get supplemental tutoring, after school services or transfer to a better school, with transportation provided. The disadvantaged students with limited proficiency in English are identified and given addition help, impacting them positively. The gap between the advantaged and disadvantaged students is projected to narrow. Some of the positives identified of the NCLB Law include steadily increased student test scores since 2002, especially amongst minority students. Higher qualified teachers and professionals are teaching over 90% of the classes in the country and a little less than half a million students have received additional help such as tutoring or been able to transfer to better performing schools. (Carleton University 2008) Possible negative aspects to the No Child Left behind Law exist also. Since states are mandated to test students yearly, some critics claim the teachers are teaching the testing specifics or â€Å"teaching to the test† in order that the children do better. This is not really ensuring that the students thoroughly understand the subject matter. Different state standards have made interpreting the data difficult as well. Another factor that can hinder the success of the NCLB program is the high dropout rate in many states. According to an Alliance for Excellent Education publication, in the United States, every day up to seven thousand students dropout. This is 1. 3 million annually and appears to be an epidemic. These numbers skew the positive results for the NCLB program. This also has a huge impact on many areas in society, such as crime, cycles of welfare, and shortfalls in the economy. If the dropouts of the school year 2009 had indeed graduated high school, they’d earn an addition $355 over their lifetimes. (Education Week 28, no. 34, 2009) Some claim that a very negative factor of the NCLB has been the lack of funds actually received by the states. What they were promised by the government didn’t always materialize. The requirements of No Child Left Behind are extensive. It is implemented by each state annually testing students according to standards they set and adopt. This is required in grades third through eighth each year for the subjects of math and reading. Science is to be tested three times during a student’s career. Each state must comply with determining if a school district and its schools are achieving 100% of students being successful in meeting the standards. Schools are required to have their teachers be highly qualified in the core academic subjects and use scientifically based education programs and proven and tested strategies. Support is given for students who may be in special at risk categories, such as insufficient knowledge of English, homelessness, truancy and etc. The result of each state’s 3rd through 8th grade reading and math testing will be collected, analyzed and recorded carefully. These results are studied at the local, state and federal level and reported accordingly. This will aid educators at each level in identifying the success of the No Child Left behind Law. New goals can be implemented and areas requiring additional attention and help can be addressed. When schools in need of additional improvement are identified then more attention and aid can be properly allocated quickly and efficiently to maximize results and get the school back on track as soon as possible. Also, using a special system with compiled data to track both graduates and dropouts can be shared locally, statewide and at the national level to analyze trends and adjust areas if needed. Thorough state testing with more uniform standards across the nation will result in a greater ability to analyze the success of the NCLB law. Knowing exactly how the schools are performing can result in stronger accountability. The current administration has adjusted some of the original budgets, standards and goals since the original law No Child Left Behind was passed. President Obama hopes to transform the United States into the most competitive workforce and highest number of college graduates in the world by the year 2020. The U. S Department of Education states its mission is: â€Å"It seeks to promote student achievement and preparation for global competitiveness by fostering educational excellence and ensuring equal access. † (U. S Dept of Education 2010) References

Questions Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 25

Questions - Essay Example Nevertheless, it has lately been used in the making of E-Liquid for the electronic cigarettes, or the personal vaporizers.   Propylene glycol provides an exceptional combination of properties, such as not being readily reactive with some other substances. For a period of more than five decades, we find that it has been used in an extensive range of industrial and consumer applications, whereby it might be used as an agent of emulsification, humectant for the retaining of moisture or even solvent (LBERTY & SILBEY, 2009). Sodium acetate is the acetic acid’s sodium salt. There are several applications that sodium acetate are used. This is because it is a cost-effective chemical that can be used extensively. Some of its uses are application as picking agent and food addictive or even a laboratory reagent (PRESCOTT, 2006). In addition, it is a major ingredient in the portable, reusable heating packs that are

Visual Communication Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Visual Communication - Research Paper Example Sandro was born Alessandro di Mariano di Vanni Filipepi, but his name Alessandro later shortened to Sandro. He also adapted the nickname of his brother; Botticelli which meant little barrel (Mattern 8). Sandro defied the norm of drawing sculptures that depicted existence and had aspects of life in them. Instead, he focused on drawing works of art of different and flat nature. He later began painting works that were religiously motivated after being hired by an influential man to assist in his drawing and painting (Mattern 23). This opportunity was like a breakthrough for Sandro since he ended up drawing pictures for several churches in Florence. Consequently, this marketed him widely since many people became aware of his existence, as well as his works of art (Sterling 9). He developed and nurtured his skills in art when he started making paintings, and for quite sometime worked with a Florentine artist who guided him through the art of mixing paints (Mattern 25). The artist, FraFili ppo Lippi was the one who taught Sandro the art of mixing paints. FraFilippo also taught Sandro the best possible way of bringing in varied compositions and paintings to the perspective that people would appreciate. Discussion The Mystic Nativity is a work of art that was created by Sandro Botticelli during his years as an artist. This piece of art is considered one of his very many ingenious compositions. As a matter of fact, it is the only piece of art among his several creations that he signed his name on; to indicate and mark it as his piece. The Mystic Nativity painting was created by Sandro in 1500C. This was the period during monk Girolamo Savonarola preaching’s. Botticelli was extremely motivated by the monk’s preaching; thus, becoming his ardent supporter (Sterling 56). This contributed to the pieces of art that he produced. It is worth noting that Sandro created this work of art with oil in canvas after attending one of the sessions of monk Savonarola’ s preaching. The Mystic Nativity was seen as a response to one of Savonarola’s preaching. The Mystic Nativity piece by Sandro Botticelli is housed at the National Gallery in London. It also from another view considered to portray the struggle and sufferings that the people of Italy were facing as at that time. As is illustrated in the translations of the statements written on top of the painting, Sandro reveals that the painting was made during a time that Italy was facing some troubles. (Kren and Marx) asserts that Sandro made this painting towards the end of the year 1500 when Italy was facing difficulties. This period was half the time after the period indicated in chapter eleven of the book of Saint John in the second desperation of the Apocalypse after the loss of the devil for a period of three and a half years. This shows that his art was infact meant to document the suffering faced by the pilgims in their struggles during the religious war periods. It is an art work t hat he created and designed to bring out the different moods. This is attributed to the fact that people use the painting to demonstrate celebration, happiness and joy in togetherness. This is mainly seen with people who use it on Christmas cards, during the period of jubilation for Christian believers celebrating the birth of Christ (Sterling 35). Sandro Botticelli had other works of art that were mostly motivated

Professional Identity of Nursing Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Professional Identity of Nursing - Essay Example The professional image can be recognized as the insights, feelings, beliefs, and ideas that people tend to possess regarding the nurses and the nursing. In the last ten years, it has been observed that there have been major alterations in the images of the nurses. Media has been largely responsible for creating a somewhat derogatory image (Andrew, 2012).     It will also highlight upon the impact of professional regulations and the role of the Nursing and Midwifery Council (NMC) in the protection of the public. Value of Modern Nursing In the nineteenth century, nursing was not considered as an identity as well as self-conscious occupation. Until the year 1923, one was free to describe him/herself as a nurse. A sick person was generally provided care at home by the members of the family or he/she was assisted by one or two paid workers. Nursing was regarded as a duty which was an extended part of a woman’s domestic roles (Mortimer, 2005). ... Nursing essentially involves providing care to the vulnerable, needy and weak patients. However, the works of the nurses are often taken for granted and thus they go under-compensated (Stockwell, 2010). The value of nursing is often impacted by cultural alterations and factors associated with globalization, progresses made in the fields of technology as well as medicine (Braxter & Bramfitt, 2008). These factors are crucial in offering a structured as well as evaluated view regarding what nursing is, which will lead to greater job satisfaction among the nurses, better nurse maintenance as well as improved patient care within a supportive as well as the peasant organization (Horton & et. al., 2007). It can be observed that since the mid-1970s, nursing commentators have become highly conscious of the images of the nurses with regard to professional identity by moving in the mass media, claiming the fact that nursing is distorted and poorly comprehended by producers, writers as well as v isual image makers (Horton & et. al., 2007). The modern dilemma faced by the nursing profession has been related to the gendered identity of healthcare professionals. Most of the people have the wrong perception that nurses are generally female. However, the fact is that nurses may either be male or female (NursingTimes, 2010). Social, Cultural and Political Values Physical and emotional closeness along with intimacy are considered to be values that are stimulated by modern nursing feeling in the nurse-patient relationship. They are administered through a form of knowing the patient thereby creating a feeling of proximity (Charles-Jones & et. al., 2003).  Ã‚  

The new proposed lease Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

The new proposed lease - Research Paper Example The liabilities and assets are indicated on balance sheet and the assets are depreciated (Ellis & Peppin, 2007). The lease obligations are amortized over the passage of as debt. However, according to the new lease accounting rules, the assets and liabilities are not expressed in the balance sheet and payments of lease are calculated in accordance with the straight-line method. In particular, the operating leases are treated as liabilities and assets in the off-balance sheet (Narayananswamy, 2008; Ellis & Peppin, 2007). The new standard for lease accounting has changed the way in which leases are maintained for the accounting purposes. The changes behind the theory are depicted by FASB. These changes are made in order to help the companies recognize their assets and liabilities from the leases. The changes are expected to improve the existing lease requirements. According to the new lease accounting strategy, a particular lessee should consider net present value (NPV) of the lease pay ments as the liability. It should also identify the right to employ the asset, which represents the payments of lease that are attributable over the time period of lease (Narayananswamy, 2008). Type A: Â  This lease aims at identifying front-load expenses that are expressed in the income statement. It deals with most of the lease assets other than properties that are owned by the lessee i.e. vehicle and equipment and vehicles. This type of leases is predicted to cover an important part of the useful life of the asset or present value (PV) of lease payments. The PV of the lease payments effectively identifies the fair value of underlying assets. Type A leaseholders recognizes the right-to-use asset and lease liability that are measured as PV of the lease payments in future. The leaseholders should also evaluate the relaxation that is obtained from discount on lease liability. The interests are calculated separately from that of amortization of

Need for new models in the public safety leadership Research Paper - 1

Need for new models in the public safety leadership - Research Paper Example The new systems that have been put in place are merely a decade or two old and do leave much to be desired (Purpura, 2007, p. 102). The insufficiency and failure on the part of public safety organizations do gives way to much public outcry and solicit ample political attention. A lack of coordination and synergy between the Federal, State and local response systems further complicates the problem. The public safety organizations are constantly under pressure to envisage and promulgate the training standards that are designed on pragmatic and national standards (Purpura, 2007, p. 195). Besides in the sphere of public safety, the new systems need to take into consideration the available technologies and IT inputs. At the same time the need to upgrade the existing systems is pressing and inevitable. It is a known fact that the citizens today whom the public safety organizations are required to serve have access to varied communication technologies and tend to communicate with a wide arr ay of possibilities be they the wireless or mobile networks or the internet. Such daunting challenges and issues bring into question the vision behind the conventional leadership models supporting the public safety organizations. After 9/11, no further facts are needed to corroborate the truth that the existing leadership models in the public safety organizations leave much to be desired. The modern public safety organizations are desperately in need of the more up to date and complex models of leadership. There is no denying the fact that the challenges and issues that the public safety organizations have to put up with in the current times tend to be quiet unconventional and demanding. Though all forms of organized human endeavor requires the apt leadership models, still public safety is an aspect of human social organization that simply cannot do without an effective and

Empowerment Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words - 1

Empowerment - Essay Example To illustrate, according to Kotter, â€Å"employees often don’t feel they can influence the vision. If they feel disconnected and removed from the issues, they will feel ineffective and powerless, and will not to want to waste their time†¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦Ã¢â‚¬ ¦.there is less control and predictability in this mode, but empowerment creates the conditions where new ideas can spark and flourish† (Sourcepov, 2010). The modes of communication have undergone tremendous changes during the last two decades. In order to frame a comprehensive strategy for Publix social media, it is necessary to consider the recent development in the field of communication technologies. Facebook, twitter, and orkut are some of the most effective communication vehicles of social networking these days (what is go socially?, 2010). It is precise that any organizational or strategic change would not be effective unless management ensures active involvement of a broad base of people whose operations play a vital role in the proposed change. Therefore, to implement such a social media change, the management has to design proper programs to empower concerned associates. For this purpose, associates must be allowed to take action in response to different situations and the management must show trust in associates’ work as well as in their decisions. Such a stance may convince the associates that they are well considered in the organizational affairs. Through this strategy, the management can prepare its associates for the proposed social media change work. Huq (2010) strongly opines that employee empowerment may be a better way for the organization to attract associates to the change rather than forcing or pushing them to change; he also adds that a range of obstacles including compensation and performance appraisal-systems and organizational structures often become a barrier for the organization while implanting the framed changes (p.4). It is advisable for the Publix to adequately restructure

Media Analysis Research Paper Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1250 words

Media Analysis - Research Paper Example This essay aims to provide a timeline of important events and to describe and analyze three media artifacts that covered the Beslan school hostage crisis: 1) Peter Baker and Susan B. Glasser (2004)’s newspaper article that has an online version; 2) 48 Hours of CBS News’ video clip of the negotiation and release of some hostages; and 3) David Satter (2009)’s commentary, five years after the hostage incident. These media artifacts demonstrate some differences in how they labeled the hostage takers and similarities in their emotional rendering of the events, while one of them underscored that the blame of the crisis’ mishandling should be placed solely on the shoulders of the Russian government. Timeline of the Beslan Hostage Crisis On September 1, 2004, at around 5:30 am, a group of hostage takers seized Beslan’s School No. 1 and took hundreds of students, teachers, and parents as hostages. They exchanged fires with the police during that morning. Bak er and Glasser (2004) described the hostage takers as â€Å"guerillas† or â€Å"fighters,† from Chechnya and other nations, while the Russian government called them â€Å"terrorists† (p.1). ... On Friday, September 3, 2004, hostage takers allowed emergencies ministry workers to approach the dead bodies of some hostages who were lying in front of the school. At the same time, two hours before the bloody battle between the guerillas and the government’s troops, the president of North Ossetia, Alexander Dzasokhov, and another politician called Chechen leader Akhmed Zakayev in London. Zakayev, who stood for Aslan Maskhadov, the Chechen separatist leader and deposed president, said that they wanted Maskhadov’s help in negotiating with the guerillas because their demands were related to the Chechnya conflict (Baker & Glasser, 2004, p.2). Maskhadov was prepared to meet the rebels for the release of the hostages and the discussion of the latter’s demands. However, at around 10 to 10:30 AM, two explosions were heard inside the school. The news differed on what caused these explosions, although the ultimate result was the collapse of the gym’s roof, where most of the hostages were, the running away of hostages as shootings ensued, the attack of the Special Forces on the gym, and the subsequent battle between the army and the rebels (Baker & Glasser, 2004, p.2; The Guardian, 2004). Fighting occurred until evening, but ended at around 8 PM. On the dawn of September 4, President Vladimir Putin visited some of the wounded victims (The Guardian, 2004). Analysis of Media Coverage The first media artifact to be analyzed is the print news article (available online) written by Baker and Glasser (2004). The media sample matters because it provides vital information about the hostage crisis and it shows the difference between news language and political language. In terms of sources, Baker and Glasser (2004) relied on themselves as eyewitnesses, law

The Prehistory and Ratification of the American Constitution Essay Example for Free

The Prehistory and Ratification of the American Constitution Essay To ratify a treaty or agreement is to make it official by signing it or voting for it. For amendments of the federal constitution to take place, it usually requires the support of both the federal government and a given percentage of the constituent governments. Article five of the constitution of the United States of America illustrates how to amend the document. There are two steps involved; proposal and ratification. In proposing an amendment, either congress or the states can propose an amendment of the constitution. (Both houses of congress must propose the amendment with a two-thirds vote. Two-thirds of the state legislatures must call a congress to hold a constitutional convention.) In ratifying an amendment, regardless of how the amendment has been proposed, it must be ratified by the states. (Three-fourths of the state legislatures must approve the amendment proposed by congress or three-fourths of the states must approve the amendment through ratifying conventions.) Ratification of the constitution in 1787                  In 1787 and 1788, after the constitutional convention, there was a great debate in the United States of America over the constitution that had been proposed. Federalists were in favor of the constitution and a strong central government as well. These federalists were people like George Washington and Alexander Hamilton. On the opposing side were the anti federalists who were in favor of stronger state legislatures and a weaker central government. The anti-federalists did not want the constitution to be ratified. They were people like Samuel Adams and Patrick Henry. Federalists were in support of the ratification process due to the following reasons                  Federalists also reasoned out that the new government would not be dominated by any group and there were various adequate safeguards to protect individuals and the states. The constitution, therefore, did not need a Bill of Rights since it could create a ‘parchment barrier which limited the rights of people instead of protecting them. They considered a Bill of Rights unnecessary because the state governments already had such bills. They wanted a strong federal government which would hold the nation together. The nation was facing several problems, especially constant trade disputes which were at the verge of dividing the nation. A strong federal government was, therefore, necessary. Anti-federalists, on the other hand, did not support the ratification process for the following reasons; They were concerned about the liberties that Americans had won in the revolution. They feared that a strong federal government would destroy these liberties. They were worried that the constitution did not list specific rights for the people. From the above discussion, if I had been alive in 1787, I would have supported the ratification process because of the following reasons; A stronger national government was required to solve persistent problems in America such as lack of a common currency, constant trade disputes between the states and a lack of unity in trade. Features of the constitution would provide adequate power to the national government to address these problems while protecting the rights and freedoms of the people. There were philosophical reasons to oppose the constitution as well. The new government which would be established by the new constitution would create a link between sovereign states. Besides, government did not have power because it was the government, but because the people had granted it power. Federal courts had limited jurisdiction. Many areas were left to the state and local courts. New federal courts were necessary to provide checks and balances on the power of the other two arms of government. Federal courts would thus protect the citizens from government abuse and guarantee their freedom. By separating the basic powers of government into three equal branches, and not giving too much power group, the constitution would provide balance and prevent potential for tyranny. In addition, the anti-federalists main reason for not accepting the ratification process was that the bill of rights had not been included. Later on, the proposed bill of rights was incorporated in the new constitution, and therefore the ratification process was now a valid one. References Bailyn, Bernard. The Debate on the Constitution: Federalist and Anti-federalist Speeches, Articles, and Letters during the Struggle over Ratification. New York: Literary Classics of the United States:, 1993. Print. John, Jeffrey. A Child of Fortune: A Correspondents Report on the Ratification of the U.S. Constitution and Battle for a Bill of Rights. Ottawa, Ill.: Jameson, 1990. Print. The Constitution before the Judgment Seat: The Prehistory and Ratification of the American Constitution, 1787-1791. Choice Reviews Online: 50-0478. Print. Source document

Community Service Project Essay Example for Free

Community Service Project Essay In order to graduate some people feel as if teens should have a community service project. Should they have a community service project? As like many things doing a community service project can have some good things to it like for instince helping others at free will with no money or keeping teens out of trouble. But we have found more bad reasons to this rather than fiinding good ones. Here are some of these reasons, like many people in this world most teens do not have transportation and not havinig transportation is a bad thing it could result in people not getting what they need to get done. Think if teens do not have transportation how will they be able to do their community service project? Some more supporting reasons on why we should not have a community service project is what if the teens have a job that they have to go to as soon as they get out of school? Most teens are out here working and may not be able to fit this time consuming project in to their schedule so therefor it would be very stressful for them because they would not be able to get it done and they would probably fail which would not be good because most teens have plans for college and what about supervision during this project will the students be supervised? Who would watch the teens and acually make sure they actually do their community service project instead of faking it. We would end up needing some people from the school to make sure that they actually did their project instead of faking it and what about safety issues? Some one could get hurt doing their project and no one would know it unless we had them supervised. Which is another reason of why doing this community service project would be a bad idea. Sometimes people also get very sick and can not move around that well. If someone is sick they will not feel like doing much moving around. So how would they do their community service project if their really bad off they would not be able to. Most teens also would not want to do this project because it is time consuming and would take time off of their own time and they would not be able to spend time with their family like they hope to do on the weekends that their off of school. A lot of teens out here have health issues going on or some problems in life that they may be facing so it would definitly be very stressing if they could not get it done. Also what about the school would they be willing to do the project during school they probably would not be able to fit this in their schedule. In my personal opinion I think that this would not be a good idea because there is way too many bad reasons rather than good reasons for this community service project and people would have a lot of issues getting it done and it would make it very hard and stressful on them. So should teens have a community service project? No because there is to much bad ideas on this project.

Task Based Approach to Language Learning

Task Based Approach to Language Learning The past decade has witnessed the advent of task-based instructional approaches in different names including problem-based learning, situated learning and case-based learning. Though varied in names, they all seem to have one thing in common; they get learners involved with tasks or problems as contrasted with more traditional topic-centered curriculum approaches. (Merrill, 2007). Proponents of task-based learning believe that learners involved with real-world problems form appropriate schema and mental models as they collaboratively solve problems and reflect on their experience. Task-based instructional approaches have been widely adopted across a wide variety of discipline areas including medical training, social work, design, and language learning. This paper will discuss the implication of the task-based approach to second language learning where the method has been increasingly adopted and tried in many language classrooms across the world in the recent past. In this paper, the impact of task-based language learning will be explored with special regard to adult learners whose distinctive characteristics make task-based approaches more plausible and beneficial. Task-based instruction is a small, yet fast growing, trend in contemporary second language teaching. To give an example, the ERIC database shows over 120 articles on this issue since the beginning of this millennium. In order to discuss task-based learning properly, it is important to understand what the term task means. Task has been defined by various researchers including Nunan (2004) who wrote that a task is a piece of classroom work that involves learners in comprehending, manipulating, producing or interacting in the target language (p.9). Earlier than Nunan, Jane Willis (1996) defined task as an activity where the target language is used by the learner for a communicative purpose (goal) in order to achieve an outcome (p.23). While definitions vary somewhat among scholars, they all emphasize that pedagogical task involves communicative language use where users attention is focused on meaning rather than grammatical form (Nunan, 2006, p.17). Stemming from the constructivist theory of learning, task-based instruction has emerged in response to the limitations of the traditional PPP (presentation, practice and performance) paradigm (Ellis, 2003). While the PPP approach is relatively straightforward and well-structured to be easily understood by both students and beginner teachers, it has also been criticized considerably for the characteristic that it is far too teacher-oriented and over controlled. Furthermore, the trend of globalization has urged educators and governments to improve communicative competence among second language learners, and the PPP approach has not been effective in fulfilling the mission. Short, Harste Burke argued that the behaviorist PPP approach in language instruction has been to set up desired goals independently of the learners or the situation, present language in a structured and linear fashion, then attempt to reinforce the content through non-contextualized practices. As a result, learners end up knowing about the language but not how to use it (as cited in Abdullah, 1998). As an alternative to the PPP paradigm, task-based lesson is designed around authentic and meaningful real-world tasks, which learners are asked to complete collaboratively as they interact among each other making use of all available language resources they own. The approach is based on the fundamental assumption that, as Jeon (2006) noted, language learning is a developmental process promoting communication and social interaction rather than a product acquired by practicing language items, and that learners learn the target language more effectively when they are naturally exposed to meaningful task-based activities.(p.193) Task-based approach is recognized as an effective means of developing students language output and interaction. More student-centered learning environment helps learners exercise greater flexibility in using language, develop linguistic fluency, and allows for meaningful communication. Authentic tasks carefully drawn from real-world situations will keep learners engaged and motivated more easily, which will result in better learning. As Harrington, Oliver and Reeves (2003) have pointed out, more contextualized exercises, as contrasted with academic and decontextualized vacuum, will create a learning environment which will have learners immersed in problem solving within realistic situations. The approach ultimately help teachers bridge the gap between language practically used in real world and unnatural language used within the world of school. In spite of growing evidence of success, task-based instruction shows some limitations as well. One of the most significant and frequently voiced criticisms is that the method is not as effective or appropriate to lower level language learners with limited prior linguistic knowledge as it is to higher level students. Due to the significant amount of cognitive burden it poses on learners, beginning language learners who are asked to complete a challenging task in the target language often find the situation frustrating and, as a result, develop resistance to the learning method. When asked to use all the language they can muster to express themselves, beginning language learners who are unfamiliar with the learning context may not feel comfortable or productive as if they are thrown to a deep sea when they cannot swim (Willis, 1996). In task-based learning classrooms, frustration is not only with learners but with teachers as well. In his survey conducted among English as Second Langu age (ESL) teachers in East Asian countries, Littlewood (2007) found out that key obstacles to adopting task-based instructional approach in their classrooms were; 1) difficulties getting unmotivated students participate in tasks that usually require a higher level of motivation and enthusiasm from learners, and 2) inability to manage classroom as students get easily distracted and become noisy as they engage in group interaction to complete tasks collaboratively. While these difficulties tend to arise more conspicuously in classrooms involving younger students, adult learners may benefit more from task-based instruction. In general, adult learners demonstrate distinctive characteristics that set them apart from younger learners, and some of these learning characteristics make task-based approach more plausible and appropriate for adult learners. Knowles (1990) developed adult learning theory of Andragogy based on the following assumptions: (1) Adults need to know why they need to learn something, (2) Adults need to learn experientially, (3) Adults are life-centered (or task- or problem-centered) in their orientation to learning, (4) Adults become ready to learn when their life situation create a need to learn, (5) Adults have a self-concept of being responsible for their own decisions, and (6) Adults are motivated to learn by internal factors rather than external ones. According to these assumptions, adult learners are more motivated and more eager to learn than younger learners, have clearer goals and needs than younger learners who often might be learning a language only because it is required, and take control of their own learning. They are also oriented towards problem-solving learning and they learn best when knowledge is presented in real-life context. Obviously, constructivist task-based instructional approach and Andragogy share many aspects in common as they both emphasize ownership of the learning process by learners, experiential learning and a problem-solving approach to learning (Huang, 2002). Therefore, task-based approach can be seen as an ideal match for adult learners who in general are less likely to pose above mentioned concerns voiced by teachers. As compared to traditional pedagogy, task-based instructional method demands increased competencies from teachers who will play a key role in making task-centered language learning successful. As a facilitator, teachers need to infuse the spirit of adventurism in the class to turn students into active learners who are willing to take a risk. It is also important that teachers allow learners time to make gradual adjustment to the unfamiliar learning method, provide necessary encouragement in the process, and build confidence (Curran, Deguent, Lund, Miletto, Straeten, 2000). Effective teachers in the task-based learning environment should also be able to vary the level of tasks to accommodate the needs of beginner or lower level learners in their classrooms. Effective language classroom instruction strategies require more than a simple understanding of the significance of communication skills. To help learners become active communicators, teachers should be able to employ instructional strategies that allow and support sufficient practicing of the language they have learned. Task-based instructional approach creates a learning environment where learners take control of their own learning and freely explore communicative skills focusing on tasks that are drawn from authentic real-world situations. Despite some limitations, task-based approach is still an attractive method in the field of language learning. The approach can be particularly useful in classrooms involving adult learners since their distinctive learning characteristics well match the constructivist elements of the task-based learning. With a wide variety of learning options such as distance learning readily available to todays adult learners, the number of classrooms involvin g adult learners has increased significantly in recent years. Although no single method fits all classrooms and learners in all contexts, task-based approach seems to be a highly viable option especially for adult language learners. Amidst more language classrooms moving away from traditional teacher-centered learning activities to student-centered learning environments, the responsibilities of instructors have become even greater in the instructional design process to devise adequate strategies to guide learners towards successful learning.

Childhood in To Kill A Mocking Bird by Harper Lee and Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontë :: Jane Eyre Essays

The Theme of Childhood in To Kill A Mocking Bird by Harper Lee and Jane Eyre by Charlotte Brontà « 'To Kill A Mocking Bird' by Harper Lee and 'Jane Eyre' by Charlotte Brontà « are two very different books written in different periods of history. There are, however, similarities in the themes and background. For example, both books were written during times of great social upheaval and strife. In 'To Kill A Mocking Bird', the world was still very racist and it was not until some twenty years after the book was written that men like Martin Luther King and Malcolm X started to bring about real reforms. 'Jane Eyre' was slightly different as this was set during a time when the masses of overworked and underpaid Victorians were being given greater freedoms and more time in which to have these freedoms. Both books are written from a first person point of view, with a narrative voice. In 'To Kill A Mocking Bird', the narrative voice is the voice of 'Scout', a small girl and in 'Jane Eyre', Jane herself takes the role of narrator. Both books are also Fictional Autobiographies. This means that they chronicle, if not directly, the lives of the authors. The two books (in the first chapters) revolve strongly around the themes of childhood. The way that these themes are introduced affects the whole book and the way that characters react to one another. 'To Kill A Mocking Bird' starts with two paragraphs that summarize the entire book. It tells the reader of the beginning, middle and end of the book. It also introduces the way in which the story will be told and five of the most important characters. For eight paragraphs, there is nothing but description of the Finch family. It is here that childhood really starts to be introduced. The language used is almost entirely superfluous, very descriptive uses many effective, if childish, techniques such as "There was no hurry, for there was nowhere to go, nothing to buy and no money to buy it with" (repetition) and very descriptive phrases such as "A day was twenty-four hours long but seemed longer". Description of characters is done in two highly differing ways in 'To Kill A Mocking Bird', the first being the adult and formal manner: "Jem and I found our Father satisfactory: he played with us, read to us, and treated us with courteous detachment.

The Jilting Of Granny Weatherall and A Worn Path Essay -- Compare and

The short stories, â€Å"The Jilting of Granny Weatherall† by Catherine Anne Porter and â€Å"A Worn Path† by Eudora Welty, have many similarities as well as differences. Both stories have a simple plot with a theme that is symbolic of their lives. These stories include great characterization, description of elements in the stories, and the point of view. Granny Weatherall is characterized as a very old lady who is extremely stubborn and bedridden. Granny Weatherall is a sickly old lady in denial. She believes that she is not sick although she is lying on her deathbed. Her life consisted of two men and her children with them. Granny Weatherall remembers her first love, John, leaving her at the altar. She later marries George who she has many children, one of which, passes away at a very young age...

Essay --

Sporadic surveys during the past 25 years (Mekete and Van den Berg, 2003) indicated that several plant- parasitic nematode genera and species were associated with various crops in different areas of Ethiopia. Ac- cording to Abebe and Geraert (1995), taxonomic stud- ies of plant-parasitic nematodes in Ethiopia are almost non-existent. These authors described four known and one new species. Recently, Mekete et al. (2008) reported the presence of various species of plant-parasitic nema- todes associated with coffee from Ethiopia and gave short descriptions and light microscope photos of Scutellonema paralabiatum Siddiqi et Sharma, 1994, and Rotylenchus unisexus Sher, 1965. During 2002, an ex- tensive survey was undertaken in Ethiopia. Eight species of various nematode genera were found of which short notes are given. Four species, Rotylenchulus borealis, S. brachyurus, S. clathricaudatum and S. mag- niphasmum are new records for Ethiopia. The survey was conducted during the June-Septem- ber 2002 cropping season. Two hundred samples were collected from different agro-ecological zones through- out the southern, western and southwestern regions of the country (Fig. 1). Samples were taken at a depth of 25-30 cm with a spade around the roots of the plants. Three to five soil cores were taken at each sampling site, bulked and a sample of approximately 1 kg was taken to the laboratory for extraction of the nematodes. Nema- todes were extracted from 200 g soil sub-samples by combining the Cobb’s sieving and decanting method with a modified Baermann’s funnel method (Hooper, 1985a). Nematode specimens were then killed... ... with all the previous descriptions of the species (Sher, 1964; Van den Berg and Heyns, 1973). Scutellonema clathricaudatum Whitehead, 1959. A few specimens of this species were found associated with Acacia sp. at Wendo Genet and maize at Shoboka (Jimma). This species was originally described from cot- ton in Tanzania (Whitehead, 1959) and subsequently re- ported from various other African countries viz. Cameroon, Ivory Coast, Kenya, Mali, Mozambique, Niger, Nigeria, Senegal, Sierra Leone, South Africa, Su- dan, Uganda and Zaà ¯re (Whitehead, 1959; Sher, 1964). It has also been identified from Ghana, Guinea-Bissau, Malawi and Zambia by the first author, but this is the first report for Ethiopia. Our specimens correspond well with the original as well as subsequent descriptions of the species (Whitehead, 1959; Sher, 1964). 212

Cubism and Multiplicity of Narration in The Waste Land Essay

Abstract The aim of this essay is to consider the multiplicity of narration in The Waste Land and its relationship in enrichment of content and meaning in the poem. There is an attempt to convey the Cubist traits and find concrete examples in the poem. This study will try to specify evidences for conformity of cubism and multiplicity of narration in the poem. While Eliot juxtaposed so many perspectives in seemingly set of disjointed images, there is â€Å"painful task of unifying .., jarring and incompatible perspectivesâ€Å" in The Waste Land. Like a cubist painting, there is a kind of variety of narration in unity through the poem. The usage of different languages and narrations in the poem helps to convey sense of the strain of modern living in modern waste land. Introduction The Waste Land is like a cubistic painting. The cubist painters rejected the inherited concept that art should copy nature, or that they should adopt the traditional techniques of perspective, modeling, and foreshortening. They wanted instead to emphasize the two dimensionality of the canvas. So they reduced and fractured objects into geometric forms, and then realigned these forms within a relief-like space. They also used multiple or contrasting vantage points for narration of their story on canvas. The most conspicuous feature of cubist form is the abandonment of single perspective. The multiperspectivism in cubism suggests that the many appearances in the world are less true than the abstract design in which produced by their juxtaposition. Eliot dedicated an entire chapter of his doctoral thesis on the problem of solipsism. It is a problem raised by the fact that in any human experience of the world, the world is always experienced from an individual perspective or (in Bradleyâ €™s term) finite centre. An individual’s mental life consists in a changing series of such finite centres, and there is no guarantee that his centres will harmonize with others or even with themselves. There is no guarantee that one’s experience or self will be understood by others. Communication of the inner life is always a courageous act of faith across a gulf of privacy and difference. Eliot himself said in his essay â€Å"Knowledge and Experienceâ€Å" ( 1964 ) â€Å"the life of a soul does not consist in the contemplation of one consistent world but in the painful task of unifying ( to a greater or less extent ) jarring and incompatible ones , and passing , when possible , from two or more discordant viewpoints to a higher which shall somehow include and transmute them .† Therefore we see the terrifying problem of personal communication already expressed in Eliot’s works and also â€Å"the painful task of unifying .., jarring and incompatible perspectivesâ€Å" to the fr agmentation and synthesizing efforts of The Waste Land . Discussion The original title for The Waste Land was â€Å"He do the police in different voices†. The line , comes from Charles Dickens’ novel Our Mutual Friend (1864_65). It is describe that widow Betty Higden, says of her adopted foundling son Sloppy †You might not think it , but Sloppy is a beautiful reader of a newspaper. He do the police in different voices.† As The Waste Land is composed of so many voices and narrations , this would help us to understand that , while there are many different voices and narrations in the poem , there is one central consciousness. We have a multiplicity of voices and narrations, male and female, young and old, in a variety of languages and styles. The shifts are unannounced, so that often we do not even know who is speaking. But the unity of the poem emerges from the fact that these all merge into a single personality, something we might call the voice of the modern consciousness. The fact that this modern consciousness cannot settle into a fixed perception of things or even into a consistent language and narration helps to convey sense of the strain of modern living . In fact, what emerges from the poem as a principal concern is the inability of the modern consciousness either to see unity in the world outside or to bring to a disordered world any sense of inner integrity. Part of this sense of the totality of the modern self adding up to a fractured variety emerges, not just from the shifting sense of the images and the multiplicity of narration , but also from the variety in the verse style. It’s as if in the modern age, there cannot be a single authoritative way of expressing how one feels. There is not enough confidence in the forms of language itself. Just as the traditional community has become the unreal city, a vision of a modern inferno. So The Waste Land is abundant with multiplicity of narration in different language and set of seemingly disordered images. The images in The Waste Land are supported by two distinct ways of narration. The lyric voice opening the poem uses metaphoric, often symbolic images and speaks in repetitive, stylized syntax. It has suggested on the one hand order and propriety, and on the other hand stasis. This voice speaks with authority and finality as it recurs in scenes throughout the poem where the vision of barrenness and revulsion from life is intensely clear and controlled. This voice contrasts with many voices speaking in metonymically rendered narrative scenes full of movement and change. These other voices resist categorization. These voices rang from vivid characters such as Marie, the hyacinth girl, Stetson’s friend, Madame Sosostris, the nervous woman, the pub woman, Tiresias, and the Thames daughters, to the non-human voices of the nightingale, the cock, and the thunder. In the poem there is also a progress in debt of experience from the voice of Madame Sosostris, the fortuneteller with a bad cold, to the voice of God in the thunder. In the first part of The Waste Land, we have four voices: 1) 2) 3) 4) First voice: Marie, an aristocratic German recounting childhood. Second voice: Prophetic and acpocalyptic , recalling a more innocent past Third voice : Madame Sosostris , tarot reader Forth voice : Walker in surreal London , seeing Stetson , an old comrade In the beginning of The Burial of the Dead we hear a â€Å"voice of propriety† that wishes to stop all new movement, change, or development. In The Burial of the Dead Eliot has examined the limitations of a purely romantic view of life. It makes life arid and unreal. In the second part of The Waste Land, we have at least seven voices: 1) 2) 3) 4) 5) 6) 7) Initial narrator The nightingale The neurotic woman Her companion The gramophone The maid The bar keeper The use of different narration in this kind of collage in A Game of Chess allows the poet to distance himself from any single statement. In this regards Louis Menand ( 1952 _ ) has mentioned that â€Å" nothing in [the poem] can be said to point to the poet, since none of its stylistic features is continuous, and it has no phrases or images that cannot be suspected of—where they are not in fact identified as— belonging to someone else†¦.. Eliot appears nowhere, but his fingerprints are on everything â€Å"(The Cambridge introduction to modernism, 2007, p.179). A Game of Chess seems to be thematically centered on a sterile vision of modern life. This vision is countered by the narrative animation of the scenes: the sensuous movement of objects in the boudoir, the hysterical woman’s insistent questioning, the playful mutation of Shakespeare to a â€Å"Shakespeherian Ragâ€Å", and the pub lady’s vivid chatter. In the third part of the poem, The Fire Sermon, we are introduced to Tiresias as Eliot himself introduced him: Tiresias, although a mere spectator and not indeed a ‘character’, is yet the most important personage in the poem, uniting all the rest. Just as the one-eyed merchant, seller of currants, melts into the Phoenician Sailor, and the latter is not wholly distinct from Ferdinand Prince of Naples, so all the women are one woman, and the two sexes meet in Tiresias. What Tiresias sees, in fact, is the substance of the poem (Eliot’s note). All through the poem we hear one voice, the persona of Tiresias who assumes the various characters in the poem. Tiresias is not a definite character with definite views on life, but an anonymous carrier of a state of mind. In the poem, scenes and dialogues are so arranged to express state of mind. It is through Tiresias that we have been conscious of The Waste Land. In the fourth part, Death by Water, Madame Sosostris is overcome because there occurs what we had been told to fear: â€Å"a death by water†. There is a sense of peace in such annihilation, but the death does not end The Waste Land. We are also shown a Christ-like figure post-resurrection. It is the first explicit sign within the poem that intimates an occurrence of resurrection and redemption. It is also points to the reader’s own mortality. The last part of the poem, What the Thunder Said, returns to a barren waste and an inhuman landscape where repetition suggests a pointless circularity. This section is made up of textual fragments from Dante, Elizabethan drama, a sacred Hindu text and children’s song. What the Thunder Said directly appeals to Eastern philosophy, specifically, Hinduism. The variety of voices and narrations in this part, speaking in different languages and different tones, indicates a world rich with possibility as well as confusion, with salvation as well as loss. The ending is deeply improper, not respecting boundaries between poems, between cultures, or between voices. The passionate and paradoxical desire to end desires leads only to the continuation of life in all its variousness, confusions, tragedies, and improper desires. The proliferation of perspectives obvious in cubism is basic to Eliot’s poetry. Here we have mentioned the examples in The Waste Land that are similar to the cubist painting: The female portrait at the center of â€Å" The Waste Land â€Å" is a cubist portrait , comprehending facets of clairvoyante and Cleopatra , a nervous contemporary women at her dressing table , a pub gossip , and many others. We see different characters and different narrations by diffrent moods and temperament but totally all these characters shape a single one , â€Å" Tiresias â€Å" . Madame Sosostris, famous clairvoyante, Had a bad cold, nevertheless Is known to be the wisest woman in Europe. ( lines 43_45 ) , The Chair she sat in, like a burnished throne, Glowed on the marble, where the glass Held up by standards wrought with fruited vines From which a golden Cupidon peeped out (Another hid his eyes behind his wing) Doubled the flames of sevenbranched candelabra Reflecting light upon the table as The glitter of her jewels rose to meet it . ( lines 77_84 ) , When Lil’s husband got demobbed, I said I didn’t mince my words, I said to her myself, HURRY UP PLEASE ITS TIME Now Albert’s coming back, make yourself a bit smart . ( lines 139_142 ) Eliot presents many broken perspectives on many cities in and out of time. The juxtaposition of these many partial fleeting perspectives leads to the formation of an abstract city (Unreal city) in the poem. For instance, in the Unreal City passage which concludes the first part of poem , lines 60-76 , Eliot begins by alluding to Baudelaire’s â€Å" Les sept Vieillards â€Å", moves on to the Infreno (â€Å" I had not thought death had undone so many â€Å" ), then to hour of Christ’s crucifixion ( â€Å" a dead sound on the final stroke of nine â€Å"), to the Punic Wars (â€Å" You who were with me in the ships at Mylae â€Å"), to Webster’s White Devil (â€Å" Oh keep the Dog far hence that’s friend to men â€Å"), and finally back to Baudelaire’s preface to the Fleurs du Mal (â€Å" You ! hypocrite lecteur!_mon semblable,_mon frere! â€Å"). All these references are folded into what begins as a naturalistic description of the City of London but then becomes an increasingly horrific city of dreams. Unreal City, Under the brown fog of a winter dawn, A crowd flowed over London Bridge, so many, I had not thought death had undone so many. Sighs, short and infrequent, were exhaled, And each man fixed his eyes before his feet. Flowed up the hill and down King William Street, To where Saint Mary Woolnoth kept the hours With a dead sound on the final stroke of nine. There I saw one I knew, and stopped him, crying â€Å"Stetson! â€Å"You who were with me in the ships at Mylae! â€Å"That corpse you planted last year in your garden, â€Å"Has it begun to sprout? Will it bloom this year? â€Å"Or has the sudden frost disturbed its bed? â€Å"Oh keep the Dog far hence, that’s friend to men, â€Å"Or with his nails he’ll dig it up again! â€Å"You! hypocrite lecteur! – mon semblable, – mon frere!à ¢â‚¬  (lines 60_76) , Unreal City Under the brown fog of a winter noon Mr. Eugenides, the Smyrna merchant Unshaven, with a pocket full of currants C.i.f. London: documents at sight, Asked me in demotic French To luncheon at the Cannon Street Hotel Followed by a weekend at the Metropole. (lines 207_214) , What is the city over the mountains Cracks and reforms and bursts in the violet air Falling towers Jerusalem Athens Alexandria Vienna London Unreal ( lines 372_377 ) The main sign in the poem to show us cubist’s vein is the central and most important personage in the poem, Tiresias. Eliot thus suggests that all the many voices and narrations in the poem may be aspects of two voices, those of one man and one woman, or indeed of a single voice, that of Tiresias, the man who was changed into a woman and back into a man, according to Ovid’s Metamorphoses, who foresaw the destruction of Thebes, according to Sophocles’s Oedipus the King, and who was visited by Odysseus in the underworld in book eleven of the Odyssey. The central role of Tiresias suggests that the various voices of the poem can be understood as a sort of chorus, with each part being spoken by representatives of one sex or the other. I Tiresias, though blind, throbbing between two lives, Old man with wrinkled female breasts, can see At the violet hour, the evening hour that strives Homeward, and brings the sailor home from sea ( lines 218_221 ) Eliot brings the chaos of the modern civilization into his narrative structure, but he also shows a ray of hope to come out of the decay. The protagonist of the poem, Tiersias is a soothsayer from Greek legend, who narrates to the readers the situation of The Waste Land. Eliot forces multiperspectivism upon his readers. He juxtaposes many perspectives of the same idea or object by so many characters and multiplicity of narration. It let us to be aware of the limits of every perspective and of the desirability of moving from one perspective to another and, finally, of comprehending many perspectives at once. Eliot thus came to insist on an ideal of â€Å"variety in unityâ€Å" and as he mentioned in his Notes Towards the Definition of Culture ( 1948 ) â€Å" the variety is as essential as the unity â€Å". For Eliot, difference of perspective is not only necessary given our different sociohistorical situations, but its productive tension can provide for richer understanding and wider experience. The variety of voices and narrations, speaking in different languages, and different tones, indicates a world rich with possibility as well as confusion, with salvation as well as loss. Bibliography Antliff , Mark . Leighten , Patricia . A Cubism Reader: Documents and Criticism, 1906-1914. University Of Chicago Press, 2008. Barkaoui , Selma Mokrani . The Waste Land and The Love Song of J.Alfred Prufrock: A Comprative Approximation. University of Annaba, 2000. Bressler, Charles. 4th ed. Literary Criticism: an Introduction to Theory and Practice. New Jersey : Pearson Prentice Hall, 2007. Brooker , Jewel Spears . Bentley, Joseph. Reading the Waste Land: Modernism and the Limits of Interpretation .University of Massachusetts ,Press, 1992. Castle, Gregory. The Blackwell Guide to Literary Theory. Oxford: The Blackwell Publishing, 2007. Cottington , David. Cubism (Movements in Modern Art). Cambridge University Press, 1998. Cudden, J.A. A Dictionary of Literary Terms. New York: Penguin Books, 1982. Dwivedi , Amar Nath. T.s. Eliot A Critical Study. Atlantic Publishing , India , 2002 . Eliot ,T.S. Knowledge and Experience in the Philosophy of F. H. Bradley. Faber and Faber ,1964. Eliot ,T.S. Notes Towards the Definition of Culture. Harcourt; First American Edition edition , 1949 . The Columbia Encyclopedia, Sixth Edition. Columbia. Columbia University Press, 2004. Frazer, Sir James George. The Golden bough: A Study of Magic and Religion. ed. Robert Frazer. Oxford: Oxford World’s Classics, 1998. Gantefà ¼hrer-Trier, Anne . Cubism.Taschen, 2004. Glaser , Brian. A Hegelian Reading of T.S . Eliot’s Negativity. University of California, Berkeley , 2005. Guerin, Wilfred L. et al. A Handbook of Critical Approaches to Literature. New York: Harper & Row Publisher, 1992. Gwinn, Robert et al. Encyclopidia Britanica, Vol. 1. Chicago :Encyclopidia Britanica, Inc 1990. H.Timmerman , John . The Aristotelian Mr. Eliot: structure and strategy in The Waste Land. Calvin College , 2007 . http: //WWW.answer.com http:// WWW. Wikipedia.org Johnston , Ian . Lecture on T. S. Eliot’s The Love Song of J. Alfred Prufrock and The Waste Land . A lecture delivered, in part, to the Liberal Studies 402 class on January 16, 1997. Maddrey , Joseph . The Making of T.S. Eliot: A Study of the Literary Influences. McFarland & Co Inc, 2009. Merrian-Webster’s Collegiate Dictionary. Springfield: Merrian- Webster, Inc , 2003. Moody , Anthony David .The Cambridge Companion to T. S. Eliot. Cambridge University Press , 1994. Quinn, Edward. Collins Dictionary of Literary Terms. Glasgow: Harper Collins Publisher. 2004. Radha, M.B. T.S.Eliot’s The Waste Land and Other Poems: Narain’s University Series of English Literature, 1977. Rajimwalve, Sharad. Dictionary of Literary Terms. New Delhi: K. S. Paperback, 1998. Rocha , Luiz Carlos Moreira . The Contemporaneity of T. S. Eliot’s Poetry and Thought. Ma. in Literary Theory (UFJF); Doctorating in Science of Literature (UFRJ). Wolfreys, Julian et al. Key Concepts in Literary Theory. Edinburgh: Edinburgh University Press, 2002. Young ,R.V . Withered Stumps of Time: The Waste Land and Mythic Disillusion. The Intercollegiate Review , 2003 .

Adolescent Development in Juvenile Recidivism

Punishment is a word that has many different meanings. It differs from person to person, state to state and even country to country. When looking at the criminal justice system the purpose of punishment is deterrence, rehabilitation, retribution, and incapacitation (Bontrager, Smith, & Winokur, 2008). Punishment involving adults is hard but when dealing with adolescents it is even more difficult. Adolescence is often thought to be a time of irrational and emotion influenced behavior. There are many who think that adolescence is just a phase that is an entity in and of its self.While many people can see the correlation between the actions and behaviors that happen in adolescence to the habits and life style in adulthood few people see the correlation between a person’s early childhood and the affect that has on his or her adolescence. There is no developmental phase that stands totally alone. Each phase has a lasting consequence ramifications on the next. This progressive devel opmental phase has lasting ramifications on the adolescent’s behavior, self-concept and maturity. Because of this there is a need to view juvenile crime and punishment differently than adult crime and punishment.The reason for this is because some research has shown that recidivism rates among juvenile parolees are very high. It can range anywhere from fifty five percent to seventy five percent (Krisberg, Austin, and Steele, 1991). There is evidence that a vast majority of juvenile offenders who have been confined do not stop committing crimes when they are released. In fact, many juvenile offenders continue their criminal involvement into adulthood (Hamparian et al. , 1984). There is a need to halt juvenile crime before it begins and there needs to be a way to halt the progression of juvenile crime being indicative of adult crime.The purpose of this paper is to demonstrate how childhood development affects adolescent’s development and how this development is directly related to a troubled adolescent’s recidivism rate in relation to family, community and social support. When sentencing juvenile offenders there needs to be an emphasis not only on punishment but rehabilitation. Crime prevention, whether on the juvenile level or adult level, falls into the three categories, of primary, secondary and tertiary prevention. Primary prevention focuses on the conditions that may foster criminal activity. Primary prevention works to sway juveniles who are immersed in ommunities and cultures that promote violence and crime to seek healthier ways to live ((Bendit, Nieborg, & Erier, 2000). For example,i. e. a juvenile living in a depressed area will see that drugs and theft are the primary means of survival. Taking that juvenile to a farm, or a camp, exposes them hard, honest work is more satisfying, and less stressful than devious means of support. The idea behind primary prevention is the desire to create a more positive perspective, specifically for juveniles, which will effect positive change which will, hopefully, keep the adolescent from criminal behavior.Primary prevention speaks to pretty much all aspects of life. It takes into account poverty, unemployment and a wide variety of other social and psychological burdens. It enfolds all of the aforementioned items with support for families, schools, urban development, healthcare, stabilizing and strengthening individual personalities, social education and combating prejudice (Bendit, Nieborg, & Erier, 2000). Primary prevention is an attempt at a catchall. The concept behind secondary prevention is not to look at the general environment, as in primary prevention, but to focus on a small, clearly defined group.This group encompasses children and young people whose individual development, or circumstances, or both, cause them to be a more likely candidate for becoming a potential offender. Secondary prevention focuses on helping people who fall into this group specifically. The help may involve either working with adolescents, who live in socially depressed areas. It can also mean street work, getting involved on the youth’s direct level, for young people who are difficult to reach in other ways (Bendit, Nieborg, & Erier, 2000). When looking at crime prevention Ttertiary prevention is the most clearly defined of the three categories.It is very specific in relation to its aims and target groups. Tertiary prevention endeavors to stop repeated offences and encourages the social integration of young offenders. In fact, the younger the age of an offender, the greater the significance of getting the offender’s support system involved (Bendit, Nieborg, & Erier, 2000). This leads us into the path of criminal behavior in adolescents. Vygotsky’s Theory of cognitive learning is a socio-cultural theory of cognitive development that is based on the idea that learning happens primarily through a child’s interaction with the world.This theory shows the learning progression from infancy to early childhood to adolescence to adulthood. Adults are the key to this theory and to the concept of child to adolescent development. Adults shape and foster a child’s learning and development, intentionally, in a methodical manner depending on which culture and society the child hails from (Ormrod, 2008). Culture is often viewed as a local though it is not limited to a specific location. A person’s culture is not just where a person was born, lived and died. Culture includes the how of one’s birth, life and death.There needs to be awareness that intentionality can be done on purpose, with a goal and purpose set forth, but it can also be done with the mindset of failure. When a parent, teacher, or a significant person in a child’s life does not actively participate in the child’s development that loss of interaction may set the child up for failure. It is intentionality focused on failure. Making a cho ice to do nothing is actually making a choice to do something. It’s a choice of promoting apathy, indifference and a lack of concern.It is a choice that may cause irrevocable damage and harm that has lasting implications. An example would be not making a decision concerning salvation through Jesus Christ. When a person does not choose Christ he or she is choosing Satan. While many people may think that concept is harsh it is true. When parents, loved ones, teachers, pastors or anyone who plays a significant role in a child’s life chooses not to be actively involved it will cause reverberations that the child will feel forever. Thus, when a juvenile commits a crime and no one intervenes it creates chaos and confusion.It is generally acknowledged that dysfunctional parenting practices and family conflict are common hazards related to a wide variety of behavioral and emotional problems in children and adolescents. Improving parenting skills and enhancing the confidence ad olescents hold in their parents has the greatest potential in improving the children’s health, status, well being, and in reducing the risk of developing serious mental health problems or behavioral problems. There is extensive data to support the importance of good parenting in the maintenance, treatment and revention of childhood difficulties. This evidence comes from a wide variety of sources including different disciplines, behavioral genetics, developmental studies, and intervention research. There is substantial evidence that behavioral family interventions, based on social learning principles, are effective in the prevention and treatment of a range of childhood behavioral and emotional problems (Sanders, 2003). This data will have a huge impact on whether an adolescent commits a crime and also the recidivism rate when the child is released from whatever punishment given.The major premise of Vygotsky's theoretical framework is that social interaction plays a primary ro le in the development of cognition (Kearsley, 2010). Vygotsky taught that children learn how their culture interprets and responds to the world through formal and informal methods (Ormrod, 2008). This knowledge draws a parallel between understanding what others consider acceptable, in and for society, and turning that knowledge inward and deciding what is acceptable for ones’ self.This knowledge happens as a child moves from early childhood to middle childhood . As the child enters adolescence it begins to show up in social and emotional competences. Although middle childhood is an important developmental period for the assimilation of various skills to meet the complexity of coming social situations, the foundation for them has its origin in infancy. In infancy and early childhood, a child’s parental support allows him or her to learn to regulate behavior with consistent responsiveness from the parent to guide this developmental course.Increasingly, the child begins t o assume more control and can by early elementary school become more self-directed in carrying out the intricate set of skills required for problem solving in social situations. Accordingly, to obtain a child’s competency in social problem solving, measurement systems need to place demands on the child’s self regulatory, executive processing, and social engagement. Other basic skills that are also involved in social problem solving are competent language, regulation of attention, and memory (Landry, Smith, ; Swank, 2006).When a child does not learn these skills there is a fundamental lack in his or her foundation. The foundation may continue to be built upon but at some point it is likely to falter. Social and emotional competences have a wide range of developmental indicators that adolescents need for successful social adaptation. These indicators embrace positive interactions between adolescents and parents, teachers, care-givers and peers, emotional knowledge, emoti on regulatory abilities and relationship skills.When the adolescent is made aware that there is a problem in his or development scheme successful competency indicates a willingness to participate in special education programs for behavior problems. When a child moves into adolescence and these developmental indicators are not present, or are skewed, it is going to cause more developmental issues to arise. The process of maturation becomes much more difficult as the foundation needs to be reset in order to rebuild upon. The developmental indicators begin to show what the adolescent has retained in teaching form childhood to adolescent.A key component to seeing the correlation between a well adjusted adolescent and a maladjusted adolescent is to watch the behavior. Such behaviors would be acting-out, assertive social skills, emotional or behavioral disorder, frustration tolerance, peer social skills, shyness, anxiety and task orientation. Watching, and repairing deficiencies, earlier in childhood affects social and emotional development in early adolescence (Niles, Reynolds ; Roe-Sepowitx, 2008). To more fully understand social competencies in daily situations there needs to be an observance of the integration of skills.There needs to be a link between competencies during middle childhood to the more complex social challenges in adolescence. As children enter middle school they are expected to interact in social situations without a huge amount of structure and support from outside sources (Landry, Smith ; Swank, 2009). The reason for this is because this skill set should have been taught to the adolescent during the period of lower mental function (Ormrod, 2008). The social interactions become more complex because the adolescents are expected to consider each others’ points of view.They are then also expected to assimilate other people’s views with their own and give feedback based on the knowledge they possess. Based on what was said earlier, ado lescents can show success with these demands if they are demonstrating the ability to perceive and respond to the goals of others as well as others’ perceptions and beliefs. They can also show failure by being close minded or self-absorbed. Failure here may lead to an adolescent being ostracized, ignored or made fun of (Steinberg, 2005).Proficiency in shared interactions with others necessitates an assortment of cognitive, social, and verbal skills. From the social realm, adolescents need to understand the behavior of others. This is not limited to just understanding other people’s behaviors but also understanding that they, themselves, may have different perspectives, intentions, and knowledge. In order for this to occur successfully, they need to identify social cues and modify their strategies on the basis of the feedback received from a social peer.Cognitively, a child is required to keep focused and attentive and use information to plan and reason how to organize behaviors to achieve problem solving with others (Landry, Smith ; Swank, 2009). This is executive functioning which enters the realm of higher mental function (Ormrod, 2008). When a person goes from child to adolescent there needs to be an understanding of other people’s behavior. It is critical in being able to function in society. When this area is not developed fully it may cause issues in the area of self-concept, maturity and behavior (Steinberg, 2005).Integration of the many skills needed to function in more complex social situations is social problem solving. The ability to plan, sequence behaviors, and alter problem-solving strategies on the basis of feedback is often referred to as involving executive processing. Many theorists believe this is a critical set of behaviors for social competence because they help the child organize the information from the environment and process it to effectively comprehend social experiences.There is also an emphasis on the fact that social problem-solving requires specific behaviors. Examples would be goal directedness and planning. These behaviors fall under the heading of self-regulation. For adolescents to function competently they require the ability to create new strategies for use in unique situations and they must be able to self-examine in order to restrain behaviors that are not appropriate for the social situation. Integration of these skills is occurring across childhood (Astington ; Pelletier, 2005). In sSaying hat though, there is a prolonged progressive course where these abilities multiply in complexity as the child enters into adolescence. These behaviors are multidimensional, and can fluctuate fluidly depending on the social context (Steinberg, Dahl, Keating, Kupfer, Masten, ; Pine 2006). Social context is very important when looking at juvenile crime and recidivism rates. A common response that spans history, in the public’s concern with juvenile delinquency and violence has been to pas s legislation promising stiffer penalties as well as harsher sentences for juvenile offenders.What needs to be seen, though is the fact that crime damages people, communities, and relationships. There needs to be a balance created that includes the needs of the victim, offender, and communities. For there to be a healthy restoration process each party needs to be involved. While an offender needs to be punished unless there are support systems in place for the offender, when released, the recidivism rates for that particular offender will continue to rise (Stenhjem, 2003).